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instructional_design:programmed_instruction [2011/07/15 11:45] jpetrovic [Criticisms] |
instructional_design:programmed_instruction [2011/07/15 15:47] jpetrovic [General] |
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===== General ===== | ===== General ===== | ||
- | Although first ideas on **instruction automation** can be trackedto even earlier years(([[http://www.springerlink.com/content/w8711256732774h7/|McDonald, Jason K., Stephen C. Yanchar, and Russell T. Osguthorpe. Learning from programmed instruction: Examining implications for modern instructional technology. Educational Technology Research and Development 53, no. 2: 84-98. June 2005.]])), first notable steps in programmed instruction were taken by [[http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2332/Pressey-Sidney-L-1888-1979.html|Sidney Pressey]]((Pressey, S. L. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores - and teaches. School and Society 23, no. 586: 373-376, 1926.)) and further developed by [[http://www.bfskinner.org/BFSkinner/AboutSkinner.html|Burrhus Skinner]] in the mid-1950s. In Pressey's words, the teacher is | + | Although first ideas on **instruction automation** can be tracked to even earlier years(([[http://www.springerlink.com/content/w8711256732774h7/|McDonald, Jason K., Stephen C. Yanchar, and Russell T. Osguthorpe. Learning from programmed instruction: Examining implications for modern instructional technology. Educational Technology Research and Development 53, no. 2: 84-98. June 2005.]])), first notable steps in programmed instruction were taken by [[http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2332/Pressey-Sidney-L-1888-1979.html|Sidney Pressey]]((Pressey, S. L. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores - and teaches. School and Society 23, no. 586: 373-376, 1926.)) and further developed by [[http://www.bfskinner.org/BFSkinner/AboutSkinner.html|Burrhus Skinner]] in the mid-1950s. In Pressey's words, the teacher is |
* "... //burdened by such routine of drill and information-fixing...//", but a mechanical device device could be used to "//lift from her shoulders as much as possible of this burden and make her free for those inspirational and thought-stimulating activities which are, presumably, the real function of the teacher.//"((Pressey, S. L. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores - and teaches. School and Society 23, no. 586: 373-376, 1926.)) | * "... //burdened by such routine of drill and information-fixing...//", but a mechanical device device could be used to "//lift from her shoulders as much as possible of this burden and make her free for those inspirational and thought-stimulating activities which are, presumably, the real function of the teacher.//"((Pressey, S. L. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores - and teaches. School and Society 23, no. 586: 373-376, 1926.)) | ||
+ | |||
===== What is programmed instruction? ===== | ===== What is programmed instruction? ===== | ||
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Learning from programmed instruction on a learning machine usually includes: | Learning from programmed instruction on a learning machine usually includes: | ||
- | * a carefully designed course with predefined sequence of units, | + | * a carefully designed course with **predefined sequence of units**, |
- | * very small units delivering only a small amount of new information so it is easily understandable (shaping), | + | * very **small units** delivering only a small amount of new information so it is easily understandable (shaping), |
- | * immediate answer after filling in the missing information (reinforcement) | + | * immediate answer after filling in the missing information (**reinforcement**) |
* moving on to the next unit based on the correctness of the given answer. | * moving on to the next unit based on the correctness of the given answer. | ||
- | Research has provided questionable results about the efficiency of the programmed instruction and learning machines. A meta-study((Schramm, W. The Research on Programmed Learning: an annotated bibliography. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1964.)) summarized results of 36 studies comparing programmed instruction with traditional classroom teaching. 18 of 36 showed no statistically significant difference, 17 showed a statistically significant difference in favor of programmed instruction and one study showed a statistically significant difference | ||
- | favor of classroom teaching. | ||
- | |||
- | There still is an ongoing yet limited research today examining benefits of programmed instruction as an addition to learning materials.((For example see: [[http://www.rsc.org/images/sozbilirpaper_tcm18-46452.pdf|Kurbanoglu, Izzet, Y Taskesenligil, and M Sozbilir. Programmed instruction revisited: A study on teaching stereochemistry. Chemistry Education: Research and Practice 7, no. 1: 13-21. 2006.]])) | ||
===== Criticisms ===== | ===== Criticisms ===== | ||
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* assigning the responsibility for learning to the learning materials and not to learners (//ontological determinism//), | * assigning the responsibility for learning to the learning materials and not to learners (//ontological determinism//), | ||
- | * forcing instructional problems to fit into observable behavior measuring and accepting only observable behaviors as proper learning outcomes (//materialism//), | + | * forcing instructional problems to fit into **observable behavior** measuring and accepting only observable behaviors as proper learning outcomes (//materialism//), |
* presenting technology as the key factor for learning without addressing learner's needs (//technological determinism//) | * presenting technology as the key factor for learning without addressing learner's needs (//technological determinism//) | ||
- | * rigidness and resistance to adaptation to fit individual learner's needs, and | + | * **rigidness** and resistance to adaptation to fit individual learner's needs, and |
- | * ensuring that learners are correct as often as possible through shaping (//overprompting//). | + | * ensuring that learners are correct as often as possible through shaping (//**overprompting**//). |
+ | |||
+ | Research has provided questionable results about the efficiency of the programmed instruction and learning machines. A meta-study((Schramm, W. The Research on Programmed Learning: an annotated bibliography. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1964.)) summarized results of 36 studies comparing programmed instruction with traditional classroom teaching. 18 of 36 showed no statistically significant difference, 17 showed a statistically significant difference in favor of programmed instruction and one study showed a statistically significant difference in favor of classroom teaching. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Other research found that programmed instruction can result in frustration if a learner can't follow the pace of his peers, paying less attention due to overprompting and eventually disliking the concept of programmed instruction.(([[http://books.google.hr/books?id=bsGlHAAACAAJ|Casas, Martha. The history surrounding the use of Skinnerian teaching machines and programmed instruction (1960-1970). Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1997.]] cited by [[http://www.springerlink.com/content/w8711256732774h7/|McDonald, Jason K., Stephen C. Yanchar, and Russell T. Osguthorpe. Learning from programmed instruction: Examining implications for modern instructional technology. Educational Technology Research and Development 53, no. 2: 84-98. 2005.]])) | ||
+ | |||
+ | There still is an ongoing yet limited research today examining benefits of programmed instruction as an addition to learning materials.((For example see: [[http://www.rsc.org/images/sozbilirpaper_tcm18-46452.pdf|Kurbanoglu, Izzet, Y Taskesenligil, and M Sozbilir. Programmed instruction revisited: A study on teaching stereochemistry. Chemistry Education: Research and Practice 7, no. 1: 13-21. 2006.]])) | ||
===== Keywords and most important names ===== | ===== Keywords and most important names ===== | ||
+ | * **Programmed instruction**, **learning machine**, **shaping**, **reinforcement**, **overprompting** | ||
+ | * [[http://www.bfskinner.org/BFSkinner/AboutSkinner.html|Burrhus Skinner]], [[http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2332/Pressey-Sidney-L-1888-1979.html|Sidney Pressey]] | ||
===== Bibliography ===== | ===== Bibliography ===== | ||
+ | [[http://www.springerlink.com/content/w8711256732774h7/|McDonald, Jason K., Stephen C. Yanchar, and Russell T. Osguthorpe. Learning from programmed instruction: Examining implications for modern instructional technology. Educational Technology Research and Development 53, no. 2: 84-98. 2005.]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EXR9Ft8rzhk&feature=youtube_gdata_player|Youtube: Programmed Learning]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[http://www.isrl.illinois.edu/~chip/projects/timeline/1954teaching_machine.html|Wleklinski, Nichole. Skinner’s Teaching Machine and Programmed Learning Theory.]] Retrieved July 15, 2011. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[http://www.hull.ac.uk/php/edskas/edtech/c2.pdf|Spencer, K. Psychology of Learning: improving pupil performance. The art of teaching and the science of learning.]] | ||
===== Read more ===== | ===== Read more ===== | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[http://books.google.hr/books?id=bsGlHAAACAAJ|Casas, Martha. The history surrounding the use of Skinnerian teaching machines and programmed instruction (1960-1970). Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1997.]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | Schramm, W. The Research on Programmed Learning: an annotated bibliography. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1964. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Pressey, S. L. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores - and teaches. School and Society 23, no. 586: 373-376. 1926. | ||
+ |