learning_theories:schema_theory
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| - | Concept of schema theory, one of the [[learning_paradigms:cognitivism#learning_theories|cognitivist learning theories]], was firstly introduced in 1930s through the work of British psychologist [[http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/|Sir Frederic Bartlett]] and was further developed mostly in 1970s by American educational psychologist [[http://www.education.com/reference/article/anderson-richard-chase-1934-/|Richard Anderson]]. Schema theory describes how knowledge is acquired, processed and organized. The starting assumption of this theory is that "//very act of [[:glossary#comprehension|comprehension]] involves one’s knowledge of the | + | Concept of schema theory, one of the [[learning_paradigms:cognitivism#learning_theories|cognitivist learning theories]], was firstly introduced in 1932 through the work of British psychologist [[http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/|Sir Frederic Bartlett]](([[http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/TheoryOfRemembering.htm|Bartlett, Frederic (Sir). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge University Press, 1932.]])) (some suggest it was first introduced in 1926 by [[http://www.piaget.org/aboutPiaget.html|Jean Piaget]](([[http://www.up.ac.za/saafecs/vol30/erasmus.pdf|Erasmus, A. C, E. Bishoff, and G. G. Rousseau. The potential of using script theory in consumer behaviour research. Journal of Family Ecology and Consumer Sciences, 2010.]]))) and was further developed mostly in 1970s by American educational psychologist [[http://www.education.com/reference/article/anderson-richard-chase-1934-/|Richard Anderson]](([[http://tip.psychology.org/schank.html|Kearsley, Greg. Script theory (R. Schank). The Theory Into Practice Database.]])). Schema theory describes how knowledge is acquired, processed and organized. The starting assumption of this theory is that "//very act of [[:glossary#comprehension|comprehension]] involves one’s knowledge of the |
| world//"(([[http://aer.sagepub.com/content/14/4/367.abstract|Anderson, R. C., R. E. Reynolds, D. L. Schallert, and E. T. Goetz. Frameworks for Comprehending Discourse. American Educational Research Journal 14, no. 4: 367-381. January 1977.]])). According to this theory, knowledge is a **network of mental frames** or cognitive constructs called //**[[::glossary#schema]]**// (pl. //**schemata**//). Schemata organize knowledge stored in the long-term memory. | world//"(([[http://aer.sagepub.com/content/14/4/367.abstract|Anderson, R. C., R. E. Reynolds, D. L. Schallert, and E. T. Goetz. Frameworks for Comprehending Discourse. American Educational Research Journal 14, no. 4: 367-381. January 1977.]])). According to this theory, knowledge is a **network of mental frames** or cognitive constructs called //**[[::glossary#schema]]**// (pl. //**schemata**//). Schemata organize knowledge stored in the long-term memory. | ||
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| - | The term **schema** is nowadays often used even outside cognitive psychology and refers to a **mental framework** humans use to represent and **organize remembered information**. Schemata ("//the building blocks of cognition//"((Rumelhart, D. E. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews (pp. 3-26). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 1982.))) present our personal simplified view over reality derived from our experience and prior knowledge, they enable us to **recall, modify our behavior**, or try to **predict most likely outcomes of events**. According to [[http://rumelhartprize.org/biography.htm|David Rumelhart]]((Rumelhart, D. E. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews (pp. 3-26). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 1982.)), | + | The term **schema** is nowadays often used even outside cognitive psychology and refers to a **mental framework** humans use to represent and **organize remembered information**. Schemata ("//the building blocks of cognition//"((Rumelhart, D. E. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews (pp. 3-26). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 1982.))) present our personal simplified view over reality derived from our experience and prior knowledge, they enable us to **recall, modify our behavior**, concentrate attention on key information(([[https://test.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/123456789/8028/ctrstreadtechrepv01977i00024_opt.pdf|Anderson, Richard C, Rand J. Spiro, and Mark C Anderson. Schemata as Scaffolding for the Representation of Information in Connected Discourse. American Educational Research Journal 15, no. 3: 433-440, June 20, 1978.]])), or try to **predict most likely outcomes of events**. According to [[http://rumelhartprize.org/biography.htm|David Rumelhart]](([[http://books.google.hr/books?id=WtKcAAAAMAAJ|Rumelhart, D. E. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews (pp. 3-26). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 1982.]])), |
| [[http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/schematheoryoflearning.htm|{{ :images:egg_schema.jpg?450x390|Example of an egg schema. Image borrowed from: http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/... Click on the picture to follow the link.}}]] | [[http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/schematheoryoflearning.htm|{{ :images:egg_schema.jpg?450x390|Example of an egg schema. Image borrowed from: http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/... Click on the picture to follow the link.}}]] | ||
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| * **//language schema//** - knowledge of the vocabulary and relationships of the words in text | * **//language schema//** - knowledge of the vocabulary and relationships of the words in text | ||
| - | can cause easier or more difficult text comprehension(([[http://www.cluteinstitute-onlinejournals.com/PDFs/2006100.pdf|Schema Theory And L2 Reading Comprehension: Implications For Teaching. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 3(7), p41-48. July 2006.]])), depending on **how developed** the mentioned schemata are, and weather they are **successfully activated**.((Carrell, P.L. Interactive text processing; Implications for ESL/second language reading. In P, L. Carrell, J. Devine & D.E. Eskey (Eds.) Interactive Approaches to second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988.)). According to Brown((Brown, H.D. Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. White Plains, NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 2001)), when reading a text, it alone does not carry the meaning a reader attributes to it. The **meaning is formed by the** information and cultural and emotional **context the reader brings** through his schemata more than by the text itself. Text **comprehension and retention** therefore **depend** mostly **on the schemata the reader possesses**, among which the content schema should be one of most important, as suggested by Al-Issa(([[http://www.cluteinstitute-onlinejournals.com/PDFs/2006100.pdf|Al-Issa, Ahmad. Schema Theory And L2 Reading Comprehension: Implications For Teaching. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 3(7), p41-48. July 2006.]])). | + | can cause easier or more difficult text comprehension(([[http://www.cluteinstitute-onlinejournals.com/PDFs/2006100.pdf|Schema Theory And L2 Reading Comprehension: Implications For Teaching. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 3(7), p41-48. July 2006.]])), depending on **how developed** the mentioned schemata are, and weather they are **successfully activated**.((Carrell, P.L. Interactive text processing; Implications for ESL/second language reading. In P, L. Carrell, J. Devine & D.E. Eskey (Eds.) Interactive Approaches to second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988.)). According to Brown(([[http://books.google.hr/books?id=ZE4CAgAACAAJ|Brown, H.D. Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. White Plains, NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 2001.]])), when reading a text, it alone does not carry the meaning a reader attributes to it. The **meaning is formed by the** information and cultural and emotional **context the reader brings** through his schemata more than by the text itself. Text **comprehension and retention** therefore **depend** mostly **on the schemata the reader possesses**, among which the content schema should be one of most important, as suggested by Al-Issa(([[http://www.scribd.com/doc/45848596/Al-Issa-2006-Schema-Tehory-and-L2-Reading-Comprehension|Al-Issa, Ahmad. Schema Theory And L2 Reading Comprehension: Implications For Teaching. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 3(7), p41-48. July 2006.]])). |
| ===== What is the practical meaning of schema theory? ===== | ===== What is the practical meaning of schema theory? ===== | ||
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| Schema theory emphasizes **importance** of **general knowledge and concepts** that will help forming schemata. In educational process the task of **teachers** would be to **help learners to develop new schemata** and **establish connections between them**. Also, due to the importance of prior knowledge, teachers should make sure that students have it. | Schema theory emphasizes **importance** of **general knowledge and concepts** that will help forming schemata. In educational process the task of **teachers** would be to **help learners to develop new schemata** and **establish connections between them**. Also, due to the importance of prior knowledge, teachers should make sure that students have it. | ||
| - | "//The schemata a person already possesses are a principal determiner of what will be learned from a new text.//”((Anderson, Richard C., Rand J. Spiro, and Mark C. Anderson. Schemata as Scaffolding for the Representation of Information in Connected Discourse. American Educational Research Journal 15, no. 3 (June 20, 1978): 433 -440.)) | + | "//The schemata a person already possesses are a principal determiner of what will be learned from a new text.//"(([[https://test.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/123456789/8028/ctrstreadtechrepv01977i00024_opt.pdf|Anderson, Richard C., Rand J. Spiro, and Mark C. Anderson. Schemata as Scaffolding for the Representation of Information in Connected Discourse. American Educational Research Journal 15, no. 3: 433-440, June 20, 1978.]])) |
| Schema theory has been applied in various areas like: | Schema theory has been applied in various areas like: | ||
| * **motor learning** - schema theory was extended to //schema theory of discrete motor learning// in 1975 by Richard Schmidt(([[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6X04-4NN6WB4-1&_user=3875467&_coverDate=07%2F31%2F1975&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1663135064&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050661&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=3875467&md5=fed11a01e69d62ad60b567e34a4b475f&searchtype=a|Schmidt, Richard A. A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review 82, no. 4: 225-260. July 1975.]])). Wulf(([[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.2350050206/abstract|Wulf, Gabriele. The effect of type of practice on motor learning in children. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), p123-134. March/April 1991.]])) has shown that developing a motor schema has resulted in better performance in children when learning a motor task. | * **motor learning** - schema theory was extended to //schema theory of discrete motor learning// in 1975 by Richard Schmidt(([[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6X04-4NN6WB4-1&_user=3875467&_coverDate=07%2F31%2F1975&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1663135064&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050661&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=3875467&md5=fed11a01e69d62ad60b567e34a4b475f&searchtype=a|Schmidt, Richard A. A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review 82, no. 4: 225-260. July 1975.]])). Wulf(([[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.2350050206/abstract|Wulf, Gabriele. The effect of type of practice on motor learning in children. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), p123-134. March/April 1991.]])) has shown that developing a motor schema has resulted in better performance in children when learning a motor task. | ||
| - | * **reading comprehension** - schema theory is often used to assist second language learning since it often contains reading a lot of texts in the target language. Failure to activate adequate schema when reading a text has shown to result in bad comprehension((Bransford, John D., and Merieta K. Johnson. Consideration of some problems of comprehension. In Chase, W. G. (editor). Visual information processing. New York: Academic. 1973.)). Various methods have been proposed for dealing with this issue((See: [[http://www.cluteinstitute-onlinejournals.com/PDFs/2006100.pdf|Al-Issa, Ahmad. Schema Theory And L2 Reading Comprehension: Implications For Teaching. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 3(7), p41-48. July 2006.]])) including giving students texts in their first language on certain topic about which they will later read in target language. | + | * **reading comprehension** - schema theory is often used to assist second language learning since it often contains reading a lot of texts in the target language. Failure to activate adequate schema when reading a text has shown to result in bad comprehension((Bransford, John D., and Merieta K. Johnson. Consideration of some problems of comprehension. In Chase, W. G. (editor). Visual information processing. New York: Academic. 1973.)). Various methods have been proposed for dealing with this issue((See: [[http://www.scribd.com/doc/45848596/Al-Issa-2006-Schema-Tehory-and-L2-Reading-Comprehension|Al-Issa, Ahmad. Schema Theory And L2 Reading Comprehension: Implications For Teaching. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 3(7), p41-48. July 2006.]])) including giving students texts in their first language on certain topic about which they will later read in target language. |
| * **mathematical problem solving** - Jitendra et al.(([[http://udel.academia.edu/PritiHaria/Papers/160031/A_Comparison_of_Single_and_Multiple_Strategy_Instruction_on_Third-Grade_Sudents_Mathematical_Problem_Solving|Jitendra, Asha K., Cynthia C. Griffin, Priti Haria, Jayne Leh, Aimee Adams, and Kaduvettoor, Anju. A Comparison of Single and Multiple Strategy Instruction on Third-Grade Students' Mathematical Problem Solving. Journal of Educational Psychology 99, no. 1: 115-127. February 2007.]])) conducted a research showing that 3rd-graders taught to using schemata to solve mathematical problems formulated in words performed better than their peers who were taught to solve them in four steps (//read and understand/plan to solve/solve/look back and check//). | * **mathematical problem solving** - Jitendra et al.(([[http://udel.academia.edu/PritiHaria/Papers/160031/A_Comparison_of_Single_and_Multiple_Strategy_Instruction_on_Third-Grade_Sudents_Mathematical_Problem_Solving|Jitendra, Asha K., Cynthia C. Griffin, Priti Haria, Jayne Leh, Aimee Adams, and Kaduvettoor, Anju. A Comparison of Single and Multiple Strategy Instruction on Third-Grade Students' Mathematical Problem Solving. Journal of Educational Psychology 99, no. 1: 115-127. February 2007.]])) conducted a research showing that 3rd-graders taught to using schemata to solve mathematical problems formulated in words performed better than their peers who were taught to solve them in four steps (//read and understand/plan to solve/solve/look back and check//). | ||
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| Explanations of structures of knowledge have been criticized for being rather **unclear** about what exactly can count as a schema and what does a schema include. The idea of schemata as more complex constructs of memory has also been questioned. Some researchers((McClelland, J.L., Rumelhart, D.E. and the PDP Research Group. Parallel distributed processing: explorations in the microstructure of cognition, vol. 2, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.)) suggest schemata as such are just networks of interacting simple (//low-level//) units activated at the same time. For example, a classroom schema is formed by simultaneously activated units of a blackboard, desks, chairs and a teacher. | Explanations of structures of knowledge have been criticized for being rather **unclear** about what exactly can count as a schema and what does a schema include. The idea of schemata as more complex constructs of memory has also been questioned. Some researchers((McClelland, J.L., Rumelhart, D.E. and the PDP Research Group. Parallel distributed processing: explorations in the microstructure of cognition, vol. 2, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.)) suggest schemata as such are just networks of interacting simple (//low-level//) units activated at the same time. For example, a classroom schema is formed by simultaneously activated units of a blackboard, desks, chairs and a teacher. | ||
| - | On the other hand, schema theory was the starting point or a component for many other cognitivist theories and theorists like [[http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~jean/|Jean Mandler]], [[http://rumelhartprize.org/biography.htm|David Rumelhart]] (modes of learning) or [[http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/|Marvin Minsky]] (frame theory) who have further expanded it's concepts, and was also included in works of many other theorists like Sweller's ([[cognitive_load_theory|cognitive load theory]]) or Ausubell's ([[assimilation_theory|assimilation theory]]). | + | On the other hand, schema theory was the starting point or a component for many other cognitivist theories and theorists like [[http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~jean/|Jean Mandler]](([[http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=ED269751|Mandler, Jean Matter. Stories, Scripts, and Scenes: Aspects of Schema Theory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, 365 Broadway, Hillsdale, 1984.]])), [[http://rumelhartprize.org/biography.htm|David Rumelhart]] (modes of learning) or [[http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/|Marvin Minsky]] (frame theory) who have further expanded it's concepts, and was also included in works of many other theorists like Sweller's ([[cognitive_load_theory|cognitive load theory]]) or Ausubell's ([[assimilation_theory|assimilation theory]]). |
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| [[http://www.science.mcmaster.ca/kinesiology/images/stories/Sherwood202620Lee20RQES.pdf|Sherwood, D. E, and T. D Lee. Schema theory: critical review and implications for the role of cognition in a new theory of motor learning.” Research quarterly for exercise and sport 74, no. 4: 376–382. 2003.]] | [[http://www.science.mcmaster.ca/kinesiology/images/stories/Sherwood202620Lee20RQES.pdf|Sherwood, D. E, and T. D Lee. Schema theory: critical review and implications for the role of cognition in a new theory of motor learning.” Research quarterly for exercise and sport 74, no. 4: 376–382. 2003.]] | ||
| + | [[http://www.google.com/books?id=2QCWe2r-pvwC|D'Andrade, Roy G. The development of cognitive anthropology. Cambridge University Press, 1995.]] | ||
| - | D'Andrade, Roy G. The development of cognitive anthropology. Cambridge University Press, 1995. | + | [[http://books.google.com/books?id=9KvHdk6TwA0C|Mandler, Jean Matter. Stories, Scripts, and Scenes: Aspects of Schema Theory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, 365 Broadway, Hillsdale, 1984.]] |
| - | Mandler, Jean Matter. Stories, Scripts, and Scenes: Aspects of Schema Theory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, 365 Broadway, Hillsdale, NJ 07642, 1984. | + | [[http://books.google.com/books?id=3yLYAAAAMAAJ|Mandler, J. M. The foundations of mind: The origins of conceptual thought. New York: Oxford University Press. 2004.]] |
| - | Minsky's frame system theory. In Proceedings of the 1975 workshop on Theoretical issues in natural language processing, 104–116. TINLAP '75. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, 1975. | + | [[http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/RememberingBook.htm|Bartlett, F.C. Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 1932.]] |
| - | + | ||
| - | Mandler, J. M. The foundations of mind: The origins of conceptual thought. New York: Oxford University Press. 2004. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Bartlett, F.C. Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 1932. | + | |
learning_theories/schema_theory.txt · Last modified: 2023/06/19 18:03 (external edit)
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