Implications

Here are some practical implications of theories analyzed here together with links to their source and context.

Behaviorism

Potential to learn leads to frustration if not satisfied. Connectionism

Negative reinforcement (punishment) does not really lead to any kind of learning. Connectionism

Repetition enhances learning. Connectionism

Reward and punishment do not initiate learning, but rather can motivate to present already learned behavior. Sign Learning, Operant conditioning

Students need to be able to learn at their own pace. The Keller plan, Programmed instruction

Students must have learning objectives defined. The Keller plan, Conditions of learning

In order to advance to the next unit, a student needs to demonstrate mastery of the preceding unit. The Keller plan, Programmed instruction

Long-term memory and knowledge organization

Human knowledge is organized in the long-term memory which has practically unlimited capacity and duration. A Brief History of Human Memory Systems Research

Representations in the long-term memory can be stored as logogens (verbal stimuli) or imagens (non-verbal stimuli). Dual coding theory

In order to acquire knowledge into long-term memory, it has to complete the time-consuming process of consolidation. During that time, new knowledge is vulnerable to trace decay and retroactive/proactive interference. A Brief History of Human Memory Systems Research

A schema is a hierarchical mental framework humans use to represent and organize remembered information. Schema theory

A script is a mental framework for representation of complex event sequences. Script theory

Working memory and cognitive architecture

Human working memory has a limited capacity of 7±2 or 4±1 chunks of information. A chunk is an unit operated as a whole and it has a different meaning for an expert and for a novice. Human Working Memory

Human working memory has four components: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer and central executive. Visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop allow parallel processing of visual and auditive information. Human Working Memory, Cognitive load theory

Since working memory has a limited capacity learning won't occur if that capacity is exceeded. Cognitive load theory

Prior knowledge

Meaningful learning won't occur unless the learner possesses necessary prior knowledge. Assimilation theory

Comprehension and retention depend mostly on the schemata the reader already possesses. Schema Theory

The meaning is not conveyed by the teacher and is not in (educational) information. Rather meaning is derived by the student from his existing knowledge (schemata) and its interaction with presented information. Schema Theory

Meaningful learning

Learning is not a passive, but a conscious, active process. Constructivism, Cognitivism

Learning is the process of knowledge construction/acquisition. Constructivism/Cognitivism

Learning occurs through interaction of learner's prior knowledge (knowledge schemes), ideas and experience. Constructivism

Learning is a socially enhanced process. Constructivism, Social Cognitive Theory, Social Development Theory

Meaningful learning won't occur unless the new ideas are presented in a clear way that enables their relating to other ideas. Assimilation theory

The teacher should advise students how and in which context to apply and transfer the just gained knowledge in the world outside the classroom. Conditions of learning

The teacher should provide guidance to students in discussion, answer their questions and offer them additional materials on topic.Conditions of learning

Starting point for any learning is experience, yet different people learn better using different learning styles. One of the classification of these styles is to abstract or concrete experience or conceptualization. Experiential learning

Instructional design principles

Modality principle - learning will be enhanced if presenting textual information in an auditory format, rather than in visual format, when it is accompanied with other visual information like a graph, diagram or animation. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Redundancy principle - capacity of both human information channels can unnecessarily be overloaded by redundant information presented through both channels. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Spatial contiguity principle - information processing is easier when two related visual information sources are closer to one other. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Temporal contiguity principle - simultaneous presentation of related information should be most similar to the way human mind operates and has provided good experimental results, same as presenting related multi-modal information with very short time differences. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Coherence principle - extraneous material that may be interesting or motivating but is irrelevant and generally wastes learning resources. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Individual differences principle - emphasizes influence of prior knowledge and cognitive capacity to results of learning. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Signaling effect - presents the increase in the learning outcomes due to promotion of attention to relevant information. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Segmenting effect - means that learning should be more efficient if a continued animation or narration could be split into more smaller parts. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Worked examples effect - presenting worked examples before asking students to try to solve one Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Synthesizers - (diagrams, images or other) enable easier meaningful integration and assimilation of new knowledge into existing knowledge. Elaboration theory

Concept maps - visual representation of the relationships between concepts. Concept mapping

Present topic with gradually increasing complexity. Elaboration theory, Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Advance organizers - introductory material presented before the learning material at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness. Assimilation theory

See also: Case-Based Learning, Simulation-Based Learning, Goal Based Scenarios, Problem-Based Learning, Inquiry-Based Learning, Incidental Learning

Humanist dimension of learning

Learning is a natural desire, a mean of self-actualization and development of personal potentials. The importance of learning lies in the process, not outcome. Humanism

We cannot teach another person directly; we can only facilitate his learning. This should be the goal of the educational process and teachers through realness, prizing and empathy. Facilitation theory

Students should be invited by their teachers to develop their potentials. People, places, policies, programs and processes related to the educational process should be maximally inviting. Invitational learning

Connectivist dimension of learning

Since knowledge is nowadays rapidly growing and changing, the process of learning should not be focused on acquiring more knowledge into or from each of available information sources, but on connecting to them and maintaining those connections. Connectivism